The Communist Model

This model focuses on this inequality of wealth and power and its multilevel effects on mass-media interests and choices. It traces the routes by which money and power are able to filter out the news fit to print, marginalize dissent, and allow the government and dominant private interests to get their messages across to the public.

The essential ingredients of this model are:

1. the size, concentrated ownership, owner wealth, and profit orientation of the dominant mass-media firms
2. advertising as the primary income source of the mass media


3. the reliance of the media on information provided by government, business, and "experts" funded and approved by these primary sources and agents of power


4. "criticism" as a means of disciplining the media


5. "anti-communism" as a national religion and control mechanism.

The mass media in this model are expected to be self-regulatory with regard to the content of their messages. It differs from the authoritarian theory in that the media organizations have a certain responsibility to meet the wishes of their audience.

The Libertarian Model

This model is also called the free press theory. In contrast to the authoritarian model, the libertarian view rests on the idea that the individual should be free to publish whatever he or she likes. In the libertarian system, attacks on the government's policies are fully accepted and even encouraged. Moreover, there should be no restrictions on import or export of media messages across the national frontiers. Moreover, journalists and media professionals ought to have full autonomy within the media organization.

As opposed to the libertarian model, the social responsibility principle is to provide an entrance to different mass media to minority groups. The journalist is accountable to his audience as well as to the government. Most media systems in Western Europe today come close to the social responsibility theory.

Programming Department

Headed by a program director

Composed of :

1. Operations units :that schedule programming and operate the switching equipment that puts the content on air.
2. Production units : that produce, stage, write and direct program.
3. Acquisition areas : that manage libraries of product that maintain records of programming contracts, scheduling and audience rating

The television programmer responsible for selecting and scheduling programs for the station by consider the product available, rating track records, competition in the market and audience viewing behavior. The programmer’s specific task:

1. research the market, the potential, audience and the competition
2. select programs to fill available time slots
3. schedule programs to attract and hold the largest audiences
4. 4. interpret ratings to obtain feed back concerning the success of the programming and scheduling

Television Dayparts

The programming day is segmented into :

1. Dayparts (early mornings). Offering audiences a good mix of information and entertainment.


2. Daytime (9am-3pm). Programs are geared primarily to those viewers who stay home during the day.


3. Early Fringe (3pm-5pm). Fragmented to serve a more diverse audience


4. Prime time (depend on time zone). Critical time. Stations depend on access programming to maintain and build audiences.


5. Late Fringe. Generally begins with local news on network affiliates or syndicated programs.

TV Programming Source

Local programming- program produced by individual TV stations through original and locally produced programs.

Syndicated program – It is a phenomenon called windowing releasing a program in multiple distribution channels at different times.

• Off network syndication refers to program that have first been aired on the networks. The sale of syndication on a station-by-station basis is referred to as first-run.


• Reruns are simply the number of times a station is allowed to run the program within the contract period. Delivery concerns the method of sending the program to the station. It could station on videotape.


• The license period, generally one to three years, covers the times within which the station has approval to air the program.


• Length of run refers to the number of episodes within the series that are available for syndication.

Public TV programming

source of national broadcasting

does not strive for large audience by providing popular programs

a reverse of commercial networks

Cable network programming- theatrical motion pictures and cable-original movies, music, news and other programs subscribe from networks

Network Programming

If the network finds a spot on the schedule for new series, the program will be produced. If the series does not generate no more program will be made but if the program attracts audience or does well in ratings, it will stay on the network schedule and may eventually go into syndication. Networks have used spinoffs in the past to ensure audience for their program schedules. A spinoff is a new program series that uses established characters from an older series in a new situation.

Scheduling Strategies

6 major strategies : Block, strip, counter, power, mood and cyclical programming Purpose : Build and hold audience from show to show (audience flow)

COUNTER PROGRAMMING

aiming to audience different from the audience that a competing station or networks are trying to attract

stunting- onetime programs such as music specials or sporting event to attract viewers from the competition

POWER PROGRAMMING:

opposite of counter programming or Challenge programming– station goes head-to-head with the same type of programming as a major competitor.

MOOD PROGRAMMING OR NARROWCASTING

all programs on the station are designed to appeal to the same audience .ieg ESPN-sports program, CNN-news

BLOCK PROGRAMMING :

Hammocking – new program is scheduled between two popular program to take advantage of audience flow.

Tentpoling – Schedule a strong established program between two weaker ones.

STRIP PROGRAMMING :

Horizontal programming – schedules the same program at the same time every weekday

Checkerboarding – schedulling horizontally across the week at the same time by program type.

CYCLICAL PROGRAMMING :

repeats program over and over throughout the day

Other strategies:

SILVERCASTING : providing programs of a single type to a very small demographic audience.

PARSIMONY PRINCIPLE : resources should be used as efficiently as possible. Provide different audiences the opportunity to view the program in several different time slots on the schedule.

Radio Programming :

Local programming– original programming produced by the radio station or from locations in its immediate service

Prerecorded or Syndicated programming program obtained by the station from a commercial supplier, advertiser, program producer or from outside station.

Network programming – it is regularly scheduled and runs the same time each day at every station on a network.

Types of programming:

Entertainment /Music programming

News/ talk coverage

Radio segments ( dayparts)

Radio stations cater not only to the demographics of listeners but to their lifestyles (psychographics)

2 types of radio segments:

• Daypart – segments or divisions of the broadcast day for programming and
• research purposes. Radio clock or hot clock

Programming formats vary according to listeners lifestyles and activities

1. Morning drive time 6-10 am
2. Midday 10 am -3 pm
3. Afternoon drive time 3-7 pm
4. Evening 7 pm – 12 am
5. Overnight 12 am – 6 am

Types of radio programming

Local programming – Program director design station formats.

The role of a Program director :

• responsible for overall sound of the station ( news, public affairs, community prog, music and entertainment prog)


• conduct market survey to assess the market (competitors)


• determine what formats are represented in the market and market niche are not served to listeners.


• evaluate format – normally by a national ratings services.


• research


• promotional campaign.

Source of radio programming

Station’s music library

Syndication services

• provide individual programs
• prerecorded programs

Network services

• range from individual to entire music formats
• contracting live programs feeds

Working Personnel

Producer

The person who's generally in charge of the entire production is the producer.

He or she comes up with the program concept, lays out the budget for the production, and makes the major decisions. This person is the chief honcho, the team leader, the person who works with the writers, decides on the key talent, hires the director, and guides the general direction of the production.

In smaller productions the producer will also take charge of more mundane things. And in small productions the director may also handle the producer's responsibilities. In this case the combined job title becomes a producer-director.

Some productions may also have an associate producer who sets up schedules for the talent and crew, and who, in general, assists the producer throughout the production.

On a major production one of the producer's first jobs is to hire a writer so a script can be written. The script is sort of like a written plan or blueprint for the production.

Director

In a large production the producer will be responsible for hiring a director. That's the person in charge of working out pre-production (before the production) details, coordinating the activities of the production staff and on-camera talent, working out camera and talent positions, selecting the camera shots during the production, and supervising postproduction (after the production) work. In other words, the director is the front line commander in charge of taking the script to the very end of the production process.

Technical Director

Assisting a director in the control room is typically a technical director who operates the video switcher. The technical director, or TD, is also responsible for coordinating the technical aspects of the production. It needs to be emphasized at this point that, depending on the production facility, the specific responsibilities of production personnel can vary widely.

Production Assistant

One or more production assistants (PAs) may be hired to help the producer and director. Among other things, PAs keep notes on ongoing production needs and changes.

Talent

The key talent for the production will normally be the next thing considered by a producer. In general, the talent includes actors, reporters, hosts, guests, and off-camera narrators—anyone whose voice is heard or who appears on camera.

Sometimes talent is broken down into three sub-categories: actors, performers and announcers.

Lighting Director

Other people who may be involved in the production include the lighting director (LD) who designs the lighting plan, arranges for the lighting equipment needed, and sets up and checks the lighting. As we'll see, lighting is a key element in the overall look of a production.

Set Designer

On some productions there will be a set designer who, along with the producer and director, will design the set and supervise its construction, painting, and installation.

Make up artist

A makeup person, who, with the help of makeup, hair spray, or whatever, sees that the talent looks their best.

Wardrobe

Major productions will have a wardrobe person who is responsible for seeing that the actors have clothes that are appropriate to the story and script.

Recorder Operator

The videotape recorder operator arranges video recording equipment and accessories, sets up video recordings, performs recording checks, and monitors video quality.

Audio Director

The audio director or audio technician arranges for the audio recording equipment, sets up and checks mics (microphones), monitors audio quality during the production, and then strikes (another production-type term meaning disassembles and, if necessary, removes) the audio recording equipment and accessories after the production is over.

The microphone boom/grip operator watches rehearsals and decides on the proper mics and their placement for each scene. During an on-location (non-studio) shoot this person may need strong arms to hold the mic boom over the talent for long periods of time

CG Operator

The CG Operator (electronic character generator operator) programs (designs/types in) opening titles, subtitles, and closing credits into a computer-based device that inserts the text over the picture during the production.

Camera operators do more than just operate cameras. They typically set up the cameras and ensure their technical quality, work with the director, lighting director, and audio technician in blocking (setting up) and shooting each shot. On a field (out of the studio, or on-location) production they may also arrange for camera equipment pickup and delivery.

Continuity

In dramatic productions the continuity secretary (CS) carefully makes notes on continuity details as each scene is shot to ensure that these details remain consistent between takes and scenes. As we will see later, this is a much more important job than you might think, especially in single-camera, on-location productions. Once production concerns are taken care of, the continuity secretary is responsible for releasing the actors after each scene or segment is shot.

Floor Manager

Depending upon the production there may be a floor manager or stage manager who's responsible for coordinating activities on the set. He or she may be assisted by one or more floor persons, or stagehands.

Editor

After shooting is completed the editors use the video recordings to blend the segments together and add music and audio effects to create the final product. The importance of editing to the success of a production is far greater than most people realize. As we will see, an editor can make or break a production.